Arianism

A heresy which arose in the fourth century, and denied the Divinity of Jesus

Christ.

DOCTRINE

First among the doctrinal disputes which troubled Christians after Constantine

had recognized the Church in A.D. 313, and the parent of many more during

some three centuries, Arianism occupies a large place in ecclesiastical history.

It is not a modern form of unbelief, and therefore will appear strange in modern

eyes. But we shall better grasp its meaning if we term it an Eastern attempt to

rationalize the creed by stripping it of mystery so far as the relation of Christ to

God was concerned. In the New Testament and in Church teaching Jesus of

Nazareth appears as the Son of God. This name He took to Himself (Matthew

11:27; John 10:36), while the Fourth Gospel declares Him to be the Word

(Logos), Who in the beginning was with God and was God, by Whom all things

were made. A similar doctrine is laid down by St. Paul, in his undoubtedly

genuine Epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, and Philippians. It is reiterated in

the Letters of Ignatius, and accounts for Pliny's observation that Christians in

their assemblies chanted a hymn to Christ as God. But the question how the

Son was related to the Father (Himself acknowledged on all hands to be the one

Supreme Deity), gave rise, between the years A.D. 60 and 200, to a number of

Theosophic systems, called generally Gnosticism, and having for their authors

Basilides, Valentinus, Tatian, and other Greek speculators. Though all of these

visited Rome, they had no following in the West, which remained free from

controversies of an abstract nature, and was faithful to the creed of its baptism.

Intellectual centres were chiefly Alexandria and Antioch, Egyptian or Syrian, and

speculation was carried on in Greek. The Roman Church held steadfastly by

tradition. Under these circumstances, when Gnostic schools had passed away

with their "conjugations" of Divine powers, and "emanations" from the Supreme

unknowable God (the "Deep" and the "Silence") all speculation was thrown into

the form of an inquiry touching the "likeness" of the Son to His Father and

"sameness" of His Essence. Catholics had always maintained that Christ was

truly the Son, and truly God. They worshipped Him with divine honours; they

would never consent to separate Him, in idea or reality, from the Father, Whose

Word, Reason, Mind, He was, and in Whose Heart He abode from eternity. But

the technical terms of doctrine were not fully defined; and even in Greek words

like essence (ousia), substance (hypostasis), nature (physis), person

(hyposopon) bore a variety of meanings drawn from the pre-Christian sects of

philosophers, which could not but entail misunderstandings until they were

cleared up. The adaptation of a vocabulary employed by Plato and Aristotle to

Christian truth was a matter of time; it could not be done in a day; and when

accomplished for the Greek it had to be undertaken for the Latin, which did not

lend itself readily to necessary yet subtle distinctions. That disputes should

spring up even among the orthodox who all held one faith, was inevitable. And of

these wranglings the rationalist would take advantage in order to substitute for

the ancient creed his own inventions. The drift of all he advanced was this: to

deny that in any true sense God could have a Son; as Mohammed tersely said

afterwards, "God neither begets, nor is He begotten" (Koran, 112). We have

learned to call that denial Unitarianism. It was the ultimate scope of Arian

opposition to what Christians had always believed. But the Arian, though he did

not come straight down from the Gnostic, pursued a line of argument and taught

a view which the speculations of the Gnostic had made familiar. He described the

Son as a second, or inferior God, standing midway between the First Cause and

creatures; as Himself made out of nothing, yet as making all things else; as

existing before the worlds of the ages; and as arrayed in all divine perfections

except the one which was their stay and foundation. God alone was without

beginning, unoriginate; the Son was originated, and once had not existed. For all

that has origin must begin to be.

Such is the genuine doctrine of Arius. Using Greek terms, it denies that the Son

is of one essence, nature, or substance with God; He is not consubstantial

(homoousios) with the Father, and therefore not like Him, or equal in dignity, or

co-eternal, or within the real sphere of Deity. The Logos which St. John exalts is

an attribute, Reason, belonging to the Divine nature, not a person distinct from

another, and therefore is a Son merely in figure of speech. These consequences

follow upon the principle which Arius maintains in his letter to Eusebius of

Nicomedia, that the Son "is no part of the Ingenerate." Hence the Arian sectaries

who reasoned logically were styled Anomoeans: they said that the Son was

"unlike" the Father. And they defined God as simply the Unoriginate. They are

also termed the Exucontians (ex ouk onton), because they held the creation of

the Son to be out of nothing.

But a view so unlike tradition found little favour; it required softening or palliation,

even at the cost of logic; and the school which supplanted Arianism form an early

date affirmed the likeness, either without adjunct, or in all things, or in

substance, of the Son to the Father, while denying His co-equal dignity and

co-eternal existence. These men of the Via Media were named Semi-Arians.

They approached, in strict argument, to the heretical extreme; but many of them

held the orthodox faith, however inconsistently; their difficulties turned upon

language or local prejudice, and no small number submitted at length to Catholic

teaching. The Semi-Arians attempted for years to invent a compromise between

irreconcilable views, and their shifting creeds, tumultuous councils, and worldly

devices tell us how mixed and motley a crowd was collected under their banner.

The point to be kept in remembrance is that, while they affirmed the Word of God

to be everlasting, they imagined Him as having become the Son to create the

worlds and redeem mankind. Among the ante-Nicene writers, a certain ambiguity

of expression may be detected, outside the school of Alexandria, touching this

last head of doctrine. While Catholic teachers held the Monarchia, viz. that there

was only one God; and the Trinity, that this Absolute One existed in three

distinct subsistences; and the Circuminession, that Father, Word, and Spirit

could not be separated, in fact or in thought, from one another; yet an opening

was left for discussion as regarded the term "Son," and the period of His

"generation" (gennesis). Five ante-Nicene Fathers are especially quoted:

Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilus of Antioch, Hippolytus, and Novatian, whose

language appears to involve a peculiar notion of Sonship, as though It did not

come into being or were not perfect until the dawn of creation. To these may be

added Tertullian and Methodius. Cardinal Newman held that their view, which is

found clearly in Tertullian, of the Son existing after the Word, is connected as an

antecedent with Arianism. Petavius construed the same expressions in a

reprehensible sense; but the Anglican Bishop Bull defended them as orthodox,

not without difficulty. Even if metaphorical, such language might give shelter to

unfair disputants; but we are not answerable for the slips of teachers who failed

to perceive all the consequences of doctrinal truths really held by them. >From

these doubtful theorizings Rome and Alexandria kept aloof. Origen himself,

whose unadvised speculations were charged with the guilt of Arianism, and who

employed terms like "the second God," concerning the Logos, which were never

adopted by the Church -- this very Origen taught the eternal Sonship of the Word,

and was not a Semi-Arian. To him the Logos, the Son, and Jesus of Nazareth

were one ever-subsisting Divine Person, begotten of the Father, and, in this way,

"subordinate" to the source of His being. He comes forth from God as the

creative Word, and so is a ministering Agent, or, from a different point of view, is

the First-born of creation. Dionysius of Alexandria (260) was even denounced at

Rome for calling the Son a work or creature of God; but he explained himself to

the pope on orthodox principles, and confessed the Homoousian Creed.

HISTORY

Paul of Samosata, who was contemporary with Dionysius, and Bishop of

Antioch, may be judged the true ancestor of those heresies which relegated

Christ beyond the Divine sphere, whatever epithets of deity they allowed Him.

The man Jesus, said Paul, was distinct from the Logos, and, in Milton's later

language, by merit was made the Son of God. The Supreme is one in Person as

in Essence. Three councils held at Antioch (264-268, or 269) condemned and

excommunicated the Samosatene. But these Fathers would not accept the

Homoousian formula, dreading lest it be taken to signify one material or abstract

substance, according to the usage of the heathen philosophies. Associated with

Paul, and for years cut off from the Catholic communion, we find the well-known

Lucian, who edited the Septuagint and became at last a martyr. From this

learned man the school of Antioch drew its inspiration. Eusebius the historian,

Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Arius himself, all came under Lucian's influence.

Not, therefore, to Egypt and its mystical teaching, but to Syria, where Aristotle

flourished with his logic and its tendency to Rationalism, should we look for the

home of an aberration which had it finally triumphed, would have anticipated

Islam, reducing the Eternal Son to the rank of a prophet, and thus undoing the

Christian revelation.

Arius, a Libyan by descent, brought up at Antioch and a school-fellow of

Eusebius, afterwards Bishop of Nicomedia, took part (306) in the obscure

Meletian schism, was made presbyter of the church called "Baucalis," at

Alexandria, and opposed the Sabellians, themselves committed to a view of the

Trinity which denied all real distinctions in the Supreme. Epiphanius describes

the heresiarch as tall, grave, and winning; no aspersion on his moral character

has been sustained; but there is some possibility of personal differences having

led to his quarrel with the patriarch Alexander whom, in public synod, he

accused of teaching that the Son was identical with the Father (319). The actual

circumstances of this dispute are obscure; but Alexander condemned Arius in a

great assembly, and the latter found a refuge with Eusebius, the Church

historian, at Caesarea. Political or party motives embittered the strife. Many

bishops of Asia Minor and Syria took up the defence of their "fellow-Lucianist,"

as Arius did not hesitate to call himself. Synods in Palestine and Bithynia were

opposed to synods in Egypt. During several years the argument raged; but when,

by his defeat of Licinius (324), Constantine became master of the Roman world,

he determined on restoring ecclesiastical order in the East, as already in the

West he had undertaken to put down the Donatists at the Council of Arles. Arius,

in a letter to the Nicomedian prelate, had boldly rejected the Catholic faith. But

Constantine, tutored by this worldly-minded man, sent from Nicomedia to

Alexander a famous letter, in which he treated the controversy as an idle dispute

about words and enlarged on the blessings of peace. The emperor, we should

call to mind, was only a catechumen, imperfectly acquainted with Greek, much

more incompetent in theology, and yet ambitious to exercise over the Catholic

Church a dominion resembling that which, as Pontifex Maximus, he wielded over

the pagan worship. From this Byzantine conception (labelled in modern terms

Erastianism) we must derive the calamities which during many hundreds of years

set their mark on the development of Christian dogma. Alexander could not give

way in a matter so vitally important. Arius and his supporters would not yield. A

council was, therefore, assembled in Nicaea, in Bithynia, which has ever been

counted the first ecumenical, and which held its sittings from the middle of June,

325. (See FIRST COUNCIL OF NICAEA). It is commonly said that Hosius of

Cordova presided. The Pope, St. Silvester, was represented by his legates, and

318 Fathers attended, almost all from the East. Unfortunately, the acts of the

Council are not preserved. The emperor, who was present, paid religious

deference to a gathering which displayed the authority of Christian teaching in a

manner so remarkable. From the first it was evident that Arius could not reckon

upon a large number of patrons among the bishops. Alexander was accompanied

by his youthful deacon, the ever-memorable Athanasius who engaged in

discussion with the heresiarch himself, and from that moment became the leader

of the Catholics during well-nigh fifty years. The Fathers appealed to tradition

against the innovators, and were passionately orthodox; while a letter was

received from Eusebius of Nicomedia, declaring openly that he would never allow

Christ to be of one substance with God. This avowal suggested a means of

discriminating between true believers and all those who, under that pretext, did

not hold the Faith handed down. A creed was drawn up on behalf of the Arian

party by Eusebius of Caesarea in which every term of honour and dignity, except

the oneness of substance, was attributed to Our Lord. Clearly, then, no other

test save the Homoousion would prove a match for the subtle ambiguities of

language that, then as always, were eagerly adopted by dissidents from the mind

of the Church. A formula had been discovered which would serve as a test,

though not simply to be found in Scripture, yet summing up the doctrine of St.

John, St. Paul, and Christ Himself, "I and the Father are one". Heresy, as St.

Ambrose remarks, had furnished from its own scabbard a weapon to cut off its

head. The "consubstantial" was accepted, only thirteen bishops dissenting, and

these were speedily reduced to seven. Hosius drew out the conciliar statements,

to which anathemas were subjoined against those who should affirm that the Son

once did not exist, or that before He was begotten He was not, or that He was

made out of nothing, or that He was of a different substance or essence from the

Father, or was created or changeable. Every bishop made this declaration except

six, of whom four at length gave way. Eusebius of Nicomedia withdrew his

opposition to the Nicene term, but would not sign the condemnation of Arius. By

the emperor, who considered heresy as rebellion, the alternative proposed was

subscription or banishment; and, on political grounds, the Bishop of Nicomedia

was exiled not long after the council, involving Arius in his ruin. The heresiarch

and his followers underwent their sentence in Illyria. But these incidents, which

might seem to close the chapter, proved a beginning of strife, and led on to the

most complicated proceedings of which we read in the fourth century. While the

plain Arian creed was defended by few, those political prelates who sided with

Eusebius carried on a double warfare against the term "consubstantial", and its

champion, Athanasius. This greatest of the Eastern Fathers had succeeded

Alexander in the Egyptian patriarchate (326). He was not more than thirty years

of age; but his published writings, antecedent to the Council, display, in thought

and precision, a mastery of the issues involved which no Catholic teacher could

surpass. His unblemished life, considerate temper, and loyalty to his friends

made him by no means easy to attack. But the wiles of Eusebius, who in 328

recovered Constantine's favour, were seconded by Asiatic intrigues, and a period

of Arian reaction set in. Eustathius of Antioch was deposed on a charge of

Sabellianism (331), and the Emperor sent his command that Athanasius should

receive Arius back into communion. The saint firmly declined. In 325 the

heresiarch was absolved by two councils, at Tyre and Jerusalem, the former of

which deposed Athanasius on false and shameful grounds of personal

misconduct. He was banished to Trier, and his sojourn of eighteen months in

those parts cemented Alexandria more closely to Rome and the Catholic West.

Meanwhile, Constantia, the Emperor's sister, had recommended Arius, whom

she thought an injured man, to Constantine's leniency. Her dying words affected

him, and he recalled the Lybian, extracted from him a solemn adhesion to the

Nicene faith, and ordered Alexander, Bishop of the Imperial City, to give him

Communion in his own church (336). Arius openly triumphed; but as he went

about in parade, the evening before this event was to take place, he expired from

a sudden disorder, which Catholics could not help regarding as a judgment of

heaven, due to the bishop's prayers. His death, however, did not stay the plague.

Constantine now favoured none but Arians; he was baptized in his last moments

by the shifty prelate of Nicomedia; and he bequeathed to his three sons (337) an

empire torn by dissensions which his ignorance and weakness had aggravated.

Constantius, who nominally governed the East, was himself the puppet of his

empress and the palace-ministers. He obeyed the Eusebian faction; his spiritual

director, Valens, Bishop of Mursa, did what in him lay to infect Italy and the

West with Arian dogmas. The term "like in substance", Homoiousion, which had

been employed merely to get rid of the Nicene formula, became a watchword.

But as many as fourteen councils, held between 341 and 360, in which every

shade of heretical subterfuge found expression, bore decisive witness to the need

and efficacy of the Catholic touchstone which they all rejected. About 340, an

Alexandrian gathering had defended its archbishop in an epistle to Pope Julius.

On the death of Constantine, and by the influence of that emperor's son and

namesake, he had been restored to his people. But the young prince passed

away, and in 341 the celebrated Antiochene Council of the Dedication a second

time degraded Athanasius, who now took refuge in Rome. There he spent three

years. Gibbon quotes and adopts "a judicious observation" of Wetstein which

deserves to be kept always in mind. From the fourth century onwards, remarks

the German scholar, when the Eastern Churches were almost equally divided in

eloquence and ability between contending sections, that party which sought to

overcome made its appearance in the Vatican, cultivated the Papal majesty,

conquered and established the orthodox creed by the help of the Latin bishops.

Therefore it was that Athanasius repaired to Rome. A stranger, Gregory, usurped

his place. The Roman Council proclaimed his innocence. In 343, Constans, who

ruled over the West from Illyria to Britain, summoned the bishops to meet at

Sardica in Pannonia. Ninety-four Latin, seventy Greek or Eastern, prelates began

the debates; but they could not come to terms, and the Asiatics withdrew,

holding a separate and hostile session at Philippopolis in Thrace. It has been

justly said that the Council of Sardica reveals the first symptoms of discord

which, later on, produced the unhappy schism of East and West. But to the

Latins this meeting, which allowed of appeals to Pope Julius, or the Roman

Church, seemed an epilogue which completed the Nicene legislation, and to this

effect it was quoted by Innocent I in his correspondence with the bishops of

Africa.

Having won over Constans, who warmly took up his cause, the invincible

Athanasius received from his Oriental and Semi-Arian sovereign three letters

commanding, and at length entreating his return to Alexandria (349). The factious

bishops, Ursacius and Valens, retracted their charges against him in the hands

of Pope Julius; and as he travelled home, by way of Thrace, Asia Minor, and

Syria, the crowd of court-prelates did him abject homage. These men veered with

every wind. Some, like Eusebius of Caesarea, held a Platonizing doctrine which

they would not give up, though they declined the Arian blasphemies. But many

were time-servers, indifferent to dogma. And a new party had arisen, the strict

and pious Homoiousians, not friends of Athanasius, nor willing to subscribe to

the Nicene terms, yet slowly drawing nearer to the true creed and finally

accepting it. In the councils which now follow these good men play their part.

However, when Constans died (350), and his Semi-Arian brother was left

supreme, the persecution of Athanasius redoubled in violence. By a series of

intrigues the Western bishops were persuaded to cast him off at Arles, Milan,

Ariminum. It was concerning this last council (359) that St. Jerome wrote, "the

whole world groaned and marvelled to find itself Arian". For the Latin bishops

were driven by threats and chicanery to sign concessions which at no time

represented their genuine views. Councils were so frequent that their dates are

still matter of controversy. Personal issues disguised the dogmatic importance of

a struggle which had gone on for thirty years. The Pope of the day, Liberius,

brave at first, undoubtedly orthodox, but torn from his see and banished to the

dreary solitude of Thrace, signed a creed, in tone Semi-Arian (compiled chiefly

from one of Sirmium), renounced Athanasius, but made a stand against the

so-called "Homoean" formulae of Ariminum. This new party was led by Acacius

of Caesarea, an aspiring churchman who maintained that he, and not St. Cyril of

Jerusalem, was metropolitan over Palestine. The Homoeans, a sort of

Protestants, would have no terms employed which were not found in Scripture,

and thus evaded signing the "Consubstantial". A more extreme set, the

"Anomoeans", followed Aetius, were directed by Eunomius, held meetings at

Antioch and Sirmium, declared the Son to be "unlike" the Father, and made

themselves powerful in the last years of Constantius within the palace. George of

Cappadocia persecuted the Alexandrian Catholics. Athanasius retired into the

desert among the solitaries. Hosius had been compelled by torture to subscribe

a fashionable creed. When the vacillating Emperor died (361), Julian, known as

the Apostate, suffered all alike to return home who had been exiled on account of

religion. A momentous gathering, over which Athanasius presided, in 362, at

Alexandria, united the orthodox Semi-Arians with himself and the West. Four

years afterwards fifty-nine Macedonian, i.e., hitherto anti-Nicene, prelates gave in

their submission to Pope Liberius. But the Emperor Valens, a fierce heretic, still

laid the Church waste.

However, the long battle was now turning decidedly in favour of Catholic tradition.

Western bishops, like Hilary of Poitiers and Eusebius of Vercellae banished to

Asia for holding the Nicene faith, were acting in unison with St. Basil, the two St.

Gregories, and the reconciled Semi-Arians. As an intellectual movement the

heresy had spent its force. Theodosius, a Spaniard and a Catholic, governed the

whole Empire. Athanasius died in 373; but his cause triumphed at

Constantinople, long an Arian city, first by the preaching of St. Gregory

Nazianzen, then in the Second General Council (381), at the opening of which

Meletius of Antioch presided. This saintly man had been estranged from the

Nicene champions during a long schism; but he made peace with Athanasius,

and now, in company of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, represented a moderate influence

which won the day. No deputies appeared from the West. Meletius died almost

immediately. St. Gregory Nazianzen (q. v.), who took his place, very soon

resigned. A creed embodying the Nicene was drawn up by St. Gregory of Nyssa,

but it is not the one that is chanted at Mass, the latter being due, it is said, to

St. Epiphanius and the Church of Jerusalem. The Council became ecumenical by

acceptance of the Pope and the ever-orthodox Westerns. From this moment

Arianism in all its forms lost its place within the Empire. Its developments among

the barbarians were political rather than doctrinal. Ulphilas (311-388), who

translated the Scriptures into Maeso-Gothic, taught the Goths across the

Danube an Homoean theology; Arian kingdoms arose in Spain, Africa, Italy. The

Gepidae, Heruli, Vandals, Alans, and Lombards received a system which they

were as little capable of understanding as they were of defending, and the

Catholic bishops, the monks, the sword of Clovis, the action of the Papacy,

made an end of it before the eighth century. In the form which it took under Arius,

Eusebius of Caesarea, and Eunomius, it has never been revived. Individuals,

among them are Milton and Sir Isasc Newton, were perhaps tainted with it. But

the Socinian tendency out of which Unitarian doctrines have grown owes nothing

to the school of Antioch or the councils which opposed Nicaea. Neither has any

Arian leader stood forth in history with a character of heroic proportions. In the

whole story there is but one single hero -- the undaunted Athanasius -- whose

mind was equal to the problems, as his great spirit to the vicissitudes, a question

on which the future of Christianity depended.

William Barry

Transcribed by Anthony A. Killeen

A.M.D.G.

The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I

Nihil Obstat, March 1, 1907. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor

Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York

The Catholic Encyclopedia: NewAdvent.org